The Crusades

The Crusades were a series of military campaigns commonly made at the request of the papacy, which took place between the eleventh and thirteenth centuries, against the Seljuk Turks and Saracens (so called Muslims) for the reconquest of the Holy Land.

Basically, it seems that they were motivated by the expansionist interests of the feudal nobility, the control of trade with Asia and the hegemonic zeal of the papacy on the monarchies and churches of the East, although in principle be declared and to regain the Holy Land to pilgrims , of which the Seljuk Turks conquered Jerusalem again, abused mercilessly.

Possibly, the motivations of those involved in them were very diverse, although in many cases can also mean a real religious fervor.

The Crusades were expeditions undertaken in fulfillment of a solemn vow to liberate the holy places of Muslim domination. The origin of the word dates back to the cross made of cloth and worn as insignia on the outer clothing of those who took part in these initiatives.

Basically, it seems that they were motivated by the expansionist interests of the feudal nobility, the control of trade with Asia and the hegemonic zeal of the papacy on the monarchies and churches of the East, although in principle be declared and to regain the Holy Land to pilgrims , of which the Seljuk Turks conquered Jerusalem again, abused mercilessly.

Possibly, the motivations of those involved in them were very diverse, although in many cases can also mean a real religious fervor.

Medieval writers used the terms crux (pro crossing Transmarine, Statutes of 1284, quoted by Du Cange sv crux), croisement (Joinville), croiserie (Monstrelet, etc.). Since the Middle Ages the meaning of the word crusade has been extended to include all wars undertaken in pursuance of a vow, and directed against infidels, P. eg. against Muslims, pagans, heretics, or those under the ban of excommunication.

The wars since the eighth century the Christian kingdoms maintained discontinuously north of the Iberian Peninsula against the Muslim Caliphate of Cordoba, and historiography called Reconquista continued in an equally discontinuous from the eleventh century against the Taifa kingdoms, the Almoravids and Almohads, sometimes with cross-qualification granted by the Pope, as in the battle of Las Navas de Tolosa (1212) or in its final episode: the War of Granada (1482-1492). In northern Europe crusades were organized against the Prussians and Lithuanians. The extermination of the Albigensian heresy was due to a cross and in the thirteenth century the popes preached crusades against John Lackland and Frederick II.

But modern literature has abused the word by applying it to all religious wars, for example, the expedition of Heraclius against the Persians in the seventh century and the conquest of Saxony by Charlemagne. Again this term resonated during the first half of the twentieth century, used by the Axis powers or their circle of influence: the Spanish Civil War or the German invasion of the USSR, received such a qualification by the official propaganda.

However, used with strict criteria, the idea of the crusade corresponds to a policy that occurred only in the Christianity of the eleventh to the fifteenth century, involved a union of all peoples and sovereigns under the direction of the popes. All crusades were announced by preaching. After pronouncing a solemn vow, each warrior received a cross from the hands of the pope or his legates, and was thenceforth considered a soldier of the Church. The Crusaders were also granted indulgences and temporal privileges, such as exemption from civil jurisdiction, inviolability of persons or lands, etc.. Of all these wars undertaken in the name of Christianity, the most important were the Eastern Crusades, which are discussed in this article.

Historia del pan

La historia del pan en la alimentación corre paralela a la historia del uso de los cereales por parte del hombre. El pan es un producto directo del procesado manual de los cereales (procesado que con posterioridad se transformó en mecánico) y es muy posible que fuese la primera aplicación alimenticia de estos. El pan, el aceite y el vino quizás fuesen los primeros alimentos procesados en la historia de la humanidad.[1]

Los cereales, por sí solos, no pueden ser digeridos por el aparato digestivo humano. Es por esta razón por la que los cereales son artificialmente procesados (molidos, remojados, etc.) y sólo a partir de este momento empezaron a convertirse en alimentos básicos para el hombre, aportando hidratos de carbono, los cuales se complementarían con las proteínas procedentes de las carnes (caza).[2] Así pues, el pan primigenio (elaborado con especies antiguas de cebada) pudo haber sido uno de los primeros alimentos elaborados de la historia de la alimentación.[3] Algunos autores afirman que el hombre empezó a cocinar los cereales antes que a elaborar el pan.[4]

A lo largo de la historia de las culturas, el pan se ha ido elaborando con el cereal disponible en la zona o con la variante modificada más resistente. Así se tiene, por ejemplo, que el trigo así como los otros cereales se han empleado en Europa y parte de África; el maíz es frecuente en América; el arroz, en Asia. Un hecho social relativo al pan, es que históricamente se ha establecido una distinción social en función del color de la miga de pan que se haya comido. Por ejemplo, los panes de centeno (de miga más oscura) han correspondido a las clases menos favorecidas, mientras que los de harina de trigo (de miga blanca) a clases más elitistas.[5] El pan es entendido por muchas culturas como un sinónimo de alimento y es un ingrediente que forma parte de diversos rituales religiosos y sociales en gran parte del mundo, siendo además en la actualidad un elemento económico que influye en índices económicos tales como el IPC (Índice de Precios al Consumo), empleado para determinar la evolución del costo de vida en las naciones.